Costs

The total cost of developing a greenway includes the costs of land protection, planning and design, trail construction, administration, operation and maintenance, and public relations and events.  While it is impossible at this stage to make an accurate estimate of these costs for the West River Greenway or any of the other proposed additions to the Providence greenways system, figures from other greenway projects can offer some sense of the possible range of expenditures.  Implementation of the 4.4-mile Woonasquatucket River Greenway is expected to cost about $10 million.  Trail construction costs typically range from $7,000 per mile for a primitive unpaved path to over $300,000 per mile for wide paved trails on raised beds with reinforced embankments.[1]  According to the Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, the national average cost of constructing one mile of a paved, multi-use trail is $110,000.[2]  Operation and maintenance costs also vary widely, but typically range from just $350 per mile per year to more than $16,000 per mile per year.[3]  The annual cost of maintaining Rhode Island’s East Bay Bikepath is about $3,300 per mile, for a total cost of $48,000 per year.[4]  

Funding Sources

City

The Providence Parks Department would probably be the logical agency to take on responsibility for implementing and maintaining new greenways in the city.  The department’s budget, however, is insufficient to cover implementation and maintenance of any additional greenways, and the budget is unlikely to increase in the future.  As noted in the Park, Recreation, and Open Space Plan, “When Park requisitions for turf fertilization compete with police overtime to fight drugs, the outcome is predictable.”[5]  Even in the improbable event that the city did increase the Parks Department’s budget, these additional funds would likely be allocated toward the 20% of Providence’s existing parks that are currently inadequately maintained.  Although Providence’s high tax rates and high social costs are likely to restrain the city’s financial contribution to greenway development, the city could use its regulatory powers to help leverage funds from private sources.  For example, the city might revise the Zoning Ordinance to include a requirement for new development of a certain scale to contribute to a park development fund.  A similar possibility, suggested in Rhode Island’s Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan, is to establish “linkage” arrangements whereby developers are required to contribute financially or materially to neighborhood improvement projects such as greenways in return for zoning adjustments or special permits.[6]  Because such arrangements may discourage redevelopment in the city, it might be preferable to modify the approach to require developers who build in suburban or rural areas to contribute to a city improvement fund for greenways and similar projects.  Finally, the city might explore the possibility of leasing subsurface utility rights along greenway corridors to sewer, natural gas, electricity, or telecommunications firms.  

State

State funds for greenway development in Providence are more likely to be available, especially for land acquisition.  Governor Lincoln Almond plans to put on the upcoming referendum ballot a $50-million Open Space Preservation Bond and a $10-million bond for recreational facilities.  Rhode Island voters have consistently approved such bonds in the past, and it is likely that they will continue their support in the future.  In addition, under the Department of Environmental Management’s proposed ten-year open space protection plan, the $50-million Open Space Preservation Bond would leverage matching funds from federal and private sources for a total of $100 million.  Of this sum, 80% would be used to buy land, while the remaining 20% could be used for developing recreational sites.[7]  In the future, bonds also might be issued specifically for greenway development.  In 1998, for example, Rhode Island voters approved a $15-million greenways bond issue, which was distributed among numerous greenway projects around the state.  Besides State General Obligation Bonds, it is possible, though unlikely, that General Revenue Appropriations from the state budget might be available for greenway development.  Although competition for these funds is intense and tax increases are unpopular, specific state taxes could be a potential source of funds for greenways, as noted in the state’s Greenspace and Greenways Plan.  Examples of such taxes include an increased gasoline tax, an increased real estate transfer tax, taxes on direct environmental impacts, or a beverage container tax with state capture of unredeemed deposits.[8]   

Federal

Federal funds distributed through a variety of programs might also be available for greenway implementation in Providence.  The Transportation Equity Act of 1998 (TEA-21) will provide billions of dollars for greenway and trail planning through 2004.  A portion of the Land and Water Conservation Fund is distributed annually to cities across the country for acquisition and development of land for local parks and conservation.  Administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the Community Development Block Grants provide funds to communities for neighborhood revitalization, economic development, and improvement of community facilities and services, especially in low- and moderate-income areas.  The Wetlands Reserve Program offers direct payments to private landowners who put sensitive wetlands under permanent easements.  Administered by the Soil Conservation Service, the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Program provides funds to local agencies and nonprofit organizations for improving watershed protection, flood prevention, sedimentation control, fish and wildlife enhancements, and recreation planning.  Under the Urban and Community Forestry Assistance Program, the Department of Agriculture provides small grants to communities for plantings along streets, in parks, or in greenways.  The Design Arts Program, administered by the National Endowment for the Arts, awards grants to local agencies, non-profit organizations, and individuals for projects that include urban design, planning, and landscape architecture.  The Rivers and Trails Conservation Assistance Program, administered by the National Park Service, provides planning and technical assistance for the development of riverine greenways.  Finally, the passage of the  federal Conservation and Reinvestment Act could add an extra $10 million to the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management’s recreational development budget.[9]

Private

Funds for implementation and maintenance of new greenways in Providence might also be obtained from private corporations, philanthropic foundations, and special interest groups.  Local businesses and industries are an important potential source of support.  Providence businesses might be willing to donate funds for development and maintenance of a greenway, donate land or public use easements for part of a greenway, or else maintain sections of a greenway which are proximal to their land.  In addition, there are many Rhode Island foundations which fund projects such as greenways.  Such foundations include The Dunn Foundation, The Rhode Island Foundation, The van Beuren Charitable Foundation, The Thomas J. Watson Foundation, and the Champlin Foundation.  Rhode Island banks also have a history of supporting projects such as greenways.  

According to the author of Greenways for America, there are at least forty-three national philanthropic foundations that give to greenways and similar projects.[10]  These include the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, the Gap foundation, the W. Alton Jones Foundation, the Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation, the David and Lucille Packard Foundation, the Scherman Foundation, the Strong Foundation for Environmental Values, the Surdna Foundation, and grant programs such as the Conservation Fund’s Kodak American Greenways Awards Program.  Providence’s Woonasquatucket River Greenway offers an excellent example of a project that has managed to acquire several million dollars from a broad range of private organizations, including the Lila Wallace-Reader’s Digest Fund, the Trust for Public Land, Citizens Bank, The Merck Family Fund, the Mary Dexter-Chafee Fund, and The Providence Journal-Bulletin.[11]         

Although it might be possible to use a predetermined percentage of some of these grants to establish an endowment for long-term maintenance, a more reliable source of maintenance support may be “Adopt-a-Park” arrangements.  Across the country, thousands of businesses participate in “Adopt-a-Highway” programs.  Similar programs for parks have been implemented in many states.  Coca Cola, for example, has “adopted” the New York state park system.  Under this deal, New York has named Coca Cola the official soft drink of its park system, while Coca Cola provides the park system with millions of dollars for maintenance and development.[12]  On a smaller scale, the Providence Parks Department has established “Adopt-a-Park” arrangements for ten city parks.  Under this program, the responsibilities for maintaining Biltmore Park, Kennedy Plaza, Abbott Park, Market Square, Rochambeau Park, and others have been transferred to private businesses and organizations.  The Providence Park, Recreation, and Open Space Plan recommends the expansion of such arrangements.[13]

Management Models

The long-term success of any greenway depends on a viable management program.  The management of a greenway includes routine maintenance, such as regular inspection and trash collection, and also remedial maintenance, such as fixing signs or repairing fenceposts.  Fundraising and other administrative tasks are another element of greenway management.  Finally, management includes patrol of the greenway and preparation for emergencies.[14]  The major greenway management models include management by a parks agency, by two or more public agencies jointly, by a special greenways agency, or by a nonprofit organization.  For the Providence greenways system, which will consist of at least eight greenways, a hybrid model is recommended.  Such a model would include the city Parks Department, a special greenways agency, and one or more nonprofit organizations.  Another important source of management assistance is volunteers.   The city of Atlanta, for example, has established a “Trail Ranger” maintenance program which enlists local volunteers to perform routine greenway maintenance such as garbage collection and brush trimming.[15]  In Providence, local groups such as the Blackstone Boulevard Improvement Association perform similar functions.  It is likely that new greenways in Providence would inspire similar volunteer support.

Land Acquisition Strategies

Land acquisition can present a major initial challenge to greenway implementation.  There are, however, many creative strategies that have been used in greenway projects around the country.  In expanding its greenways system, Providence might consider the following strategies for land acquisition. 

Donation  Donations, of the easiest methods of acquiring land, enable property to change hands quickly.  Individuals or corporations who donate land can enjoy tax advantages because the appraised value of the land can be deducted from federal and state income taxes. 

Fair Market Purchase -  Fair market purchase, or the sale of property at full market value, is often unfeasible for public agencies, as the cost of land can be extremely high.

Installment Sale Installment sales, which allow the buyer to pay for the property over time in a series of installments, can lower taxes for the seller, but require a long-term commitment from the buyer.

Bargain Sale In bargain sales, land is sold below the appraised market value.  In general, the landowner can deduct the difference between the sale price and fair market value for tax purposes.

Leases  -  Leases involve the rental of property for a specified period.  Leases for conservation are often donated, although the terms may include a small fee or a percentage of the appraised market value.

Land Exchange  -  A land exchange involves the trade of a developable tract of land for one with conservation or greenway value.  Such a transaction reduces capital gains taxes for the seller of the parcel with conservation value.  

Conservation Easements  -  A conservation easement is a legal agreement between a landowner and an agency or organization under which the owner agrees to restrict the type or amount of development on the property.  Donated easements may qualify as tax-deductible charitable donations and can result in other tax savings as well.

Public Access Easement  -  Under a public access easement, the land is kept in private ownership, but the public is given access for specific uses.

Joint Use Easements  -  Joint use easements provide for multiple uses, such as conservation and public access.  

Management Agreements  -  Management agreements are contractual agreements between landowners and recipient organizations for the management and use of property.  Such agreements are temporary and revocable.  

Public Condemnation  -  Public condemnation, in which the government seizes private land after paying just compensation, is politically unpopular and should be considered a last resort.

Regulatory Strategy: Greenway Overlay Zone

An effective regulatory strategy for securing immediate protection for future greenway locations is the establishment of a greenway overlay zone.  Although Rhode Island’s Freshwater Wetland Regulations restrict some forms of development along rivers, these regulations may still allow development that compromises the functions of a greenway.  A greenway overlay zone could provide the city with an effective means of protecting the locations and functions of future greenways from unfavorable development and incompatible land uses.  An example of a city that has successfully employed greenway overlay zones is Portland, Oregon.  Portland has created four different overlay zones for the land within the boundary of the 1,100-acre Willamette Greenway.  The River Natural zone is designed to protect wildlife habitat and the scenic qualities of the land.  The River Recreational zone provides for public access to the river for recreational purposes.  The River General zone restricts waterfront development that detracts from the river’s natural and scenic qualities, while also providing for public access to the river.  Finally, the River Industrial zone encourages river-related industries that benefit the city economically without degrading the riparian environment.  In order to enforce these provisions, Portland’s greenway zoning establishes a stringent review process for new development and alterations to existing development.[16]  Providence might consider establishing a greenway overlay zone similar to Portland’s River General zone.  Such an overlay would be particularly valuable for the West River Corridor, which is mostly zoned Industrial or Commercial.  The addition of a greenway overlay zone to such areas would probably be more politically feasible than “downzoning” land from Industrial or Commercial to Open Space.

Regulations Affecting Greenways

A number of federal and state regulations may affect the development of new greenways in Providence.  Federal laws include the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, which requires all projects that receive federal funding to prepare environmental impact statements; the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986, which stipulates that states that acquire land through the Land and Water Conservation Fund give priority to wetlands; the National Flood Insurance Program, which prohibits federal funding for development within floodplains; and the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997, which includes a tax incentive to encourage the redevelopment of urban brownfields.  The state regulation most relevant to greenways is the Freshwater Wetlands Act of 1971.  This act gives the Department of Environmental Management regulatory authority over all of the state’s freshwater wetlands, including all land within 50 feet of the edges of ponds, swamps, bogs, and marshes and also land within 100 to 200 feet of river edges.  The regulations require permits for any alterations within these zones, with the exception of minor activities such as limited vegetation clearing.  Depending on the intended functions of the greenway, the design of a riparian corridor like the West River Greenway could be influenced by the wetlands permitting process.