Brownfield Redevelopment in the Jewelry District
| Contamination/Health |
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Brownfield contamination represents a public health risk and a serious obstacle to successful redevleopment. There are multiple routes in which contamination can affect public health, as well as multiple chemicals that may be found on site. In this page, we describe the major routes of exposure to soil contamination and we profile several significant possible contaminants. The remediation process is also described to illustrate the general process a developer would take to successfully identify and eliminate contamination. Routes of Exposure | Chemical Profiles | Remediation | References Soil contamination can be expected to linger for some period of time, with some chemicals, such as lead, being nearly immobile, irrespective of groundwater flow. As such, our study on the Jewelry District's contamination focused on soil contaminants. We would expect most people to come into contact with these contaminants through contact with the soil directly, resulting in either ingestion (if, say, hands are not washed before consuming food) or transdermal exposure. Inhalation is also possible if soil particles are extremely fine and blown into the air or if a person smokes cigarettes after handling soil. Many pollutants associated with industrial use are volatile and, as such, can accumulate in the air inside buildings on contaminated sites. With the exception of some case studies, we did not look at volatile contaminants, because they do not last in the soil nearly as long. Nevertheless, the health risks associated with inhalation of vapors can be quite significant. ________________________________________________________________ Arsenic | Lead | PAH | TPH | Cadmium | Chromium | Mercury Arsenic Chronic effects of arsenic include the formation of hard patches on the skin, particularly on the hands and feet. Blackfoot disease, a type of gangrene, is one of the most identifiable characteristics of arsenic poisoning. Arsenic is a carcinogen and can cause skin, lung, kidney and bladder cancers. Liver injuries, such as jaundice and cirrhosis, also can result from long-term exposure. With an industrial legacy in the Jewelry District, we can expect to find soil contamination in excess of the natural deposits. Arsenic has long been used as a wood preservative, but it has also been used in making paints, dyes, soap, semi-conductors, copper smelting and coal mining (EPA). Indeed, our review of the Sanborn maps and SIC data would predict arsenic to be found on many properties, including those involved in lumber storage, carpentry, coal power plants, metal manufacturing and laundry operations. Sampling on the Dynamo House property showed arsenic to be concentrated at 8-16 ppm in soil. As these levels exceed the new DEM standards, reporting would be required. This does not necessarily need to be remediated; a 2001 finding of arsenic in excess of 24 ppm on the Main Green of Brown University did not involve any remediation (Brown). Remediation could be achieved by removing the top two inches of soil and replacing with new fill ( Baltimore Sun). Lead Lead does not generally appear naturally in soils, but its past widespread use in paints and gasoline have caused lead to be somewhat ubiquitous in the urban environment. Lead is a persistent pollutant; it does not readily move about once deposited in soil, so sites historically associated with lead will likely still have high levels of lead contamination ( Minnesota ). Industries associated with lead in the Jewelry District include coal power plants and electricity storage, miscellaneous metal work and plating, jewelry manufacturing, paints, automobile repair garages and gasoline stations.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH's)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) consist of fused aromatic rings (benzene derivatives). They do not contain any heteroatoms (atoms outside of hydrogen and carbon). Normally they do not exist in appreciable amounts in the environment. Their presence in the environment is, therefore, an indication of pollution, either from a point source or from atmospheric deposition. Because PAHs are not very soluble in water, they tend to persist in the environment for long periods of time. PAHs form as a result of the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels. These can include wood, diesel and coal. Different types result from different forms of combustion; we would find different PAHs linked to coal and gasoline, the primary sources of PAHs in the Jewelry District. As they are also a component of tar, PAHs will be found in high amounts near roads, such as the old I-195 corridor. Toxicity of PAHs varies widely; isomers containing the same number of atoms may be harmless or deadly. One PAH, benzopyrene, found in cigarette smoke, is notable for being the first chemical determined to be carcinogenic; it can also occur in coal tar. With little information on the species of PAHs found in the Jewelry District, we cannot make any determination about risk. Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) With increased numbers of carbons, TPH compounds become less soluble and are, therefore, more likely to be found on sites. Despite the large numbers of these compounds, only a few have been fully screened for toxicity (ASTDR 1999: 16). Benzene is a known carcinogen; others, like xylene, can cause irritation if inhaled.
Cadmium Chromium Metallic chromium is used for making steel and other alloys. Chromium(VI) and chromium(III) are used in making chrome plating, dyes and pigments, tanning leather, and preserving wood (ATSDR). In particular, chromium(III) makes the characteristic yellow and green pigments associated with chromium. Chromium contamination in soil can be quite extensive; many properties are classified as Superfund sites as a result. A number of these are found in industrial areas; New Jersey in particular has a number of chromium Superfund sites (CQS). While metallic chromium and chromium(III) are fairly benign, with CrIII even being required for biologic functioning, hexavalent chromium is extremely toxic. It is a potent carcinogen, causing lung cancer and eye damage (Wikipedia). Because even low doses of chromium can cause harmful effects, industrial groups are now being pressured to replace chromium with other chemicals (EPA). Recent research at Brown University shows that vitamin C can interact with cells exposed to CrVI to cause up to ten to fifteen times more chromosomal breaks (Brown). In the Jewelry District, chromium pollution is associated with its use in electroplating metals and the manufacturing of paints, heavy machinery and rubber. It is highly likely that chromium exists in the soils, as it does not readily dissolve into groundwater. Widely-used in industry, mercury continues to be used to make a number of medical devices, such as thermometers, dental fillings and preservatives for vaccines. It also occurs as a result of mining practices, the production of chlorine, gold and steel, burning coal and cremation (ATSDR). ________________________________________________________________ Phase I | Due Diligence | Phase II | Investigation & Remediation Phase I Potential buyers investigate the site of interest and look for hazardous materials present on the premises, as well as on the adjacent properties. "Recognized environmental conditions" include above- and underground storage tanks, as well as any source of petroleum. As contamination is generally a result of past activities on or near a site, it is important to look into a site's land use history. Buyers, often using environmental consultants, research the history of the site, tracing back to its first developed use or 1940 (whichever is earlier). While many sources can provide information, facility records often serve as one of the best. Additionally, Sanborn maps, originally developed for insurance companies to assess fire hazards, are an important source of this information. Often buyers will try to contact members of the community as well, to ask them about what they know of a site's history. State and federal environmental offices may also have relevant information. Because the migration of contaminants can pose a risk to human health and the environment, site assessments should also try to gather information in the site's physical characteristics. These include information on a site's topography, soils, sub-surface structures (such as piping) and direction of groundwater flow. Site visits and interviews are generally also conducted, before writing a report. There are three possible outcomes for phase I assessment: no recognized environmental conditions exist on a site, historical recognized conditions existed but have been remediated, or recognized environmental conditions exist that will need to be further investigated and perhaps remediated as part of the redevelopment of the site.. Phase I site assessment is very much a qualitative, subjective measure. It is not intended to, and cannot really even hope to, estimate the costs of remediation. Due Diligence A market analysis helps determine the end goal of remediation. Development on a property should be targeted towards enabling the property to fit in with an area's other economic activities. This may not be possible if contamination is too severe for a particular zoning classification. It can be very costly to clean up and develop a site. Ideally, developers would know going into the process what funds they will require. However, conducting a cost analysis is tricky. Phase I data cannot estimate the costs of remediation, though the relative extent of contamination may become clearer. Remediation plans need to take into account the costs of remediation, as well as the costs of purchasing, planning, engineering, environmental and legal consultation and insurance. Because it is so difficult to predict costs, and because there are risks of liability, many lenders and banks are uncomfortable financing brownfields projects. Legislation may help remove banks from the "chain of title." (EPA) Legal analyses can serve to minimize liability risks associated with developing brownfields. The counsel of environmental attorneys helps developers identify regulatory and permitting requirements, which can be difficult to navigate. Attorneys can also try to provide estimates of time frames and costs. Phase II The extent of the sampling is determined by Phase I findings. The period of sampling may be as brief as a day. Samples are drawn with the goal of determining the geographic extent of contamination to the point of being able to identify boundaries. The data that results is compared to regulatory standards dictated by the states. These may be more protective than EPA guidelines. Many states have screening criteria, which determine when contamination must be reported and dealt with, and cleanup standards, which determine how much cleanup must be done. In Rhode Island, they are the same. If the results of sampling and testing are below the criteria, there is no obligation to report anything to the Department of Environmental Management (RIDEM). If, however, any contaminants are found to exist above the criteria levels, then further investigations and if necessary remediation must be conducted, and a report developed, in accordance with RIDEM's rules and site-specific requirements.. Investigation and Remediation A remediation plan developed for a site by environmental engineers will describe what should be done about contamination. The plan identifies all concerns on a property, discussing specific regions if contamination varies across the site. Recommended management takes into account the implications of contamination; a cost estimate tries to anticipate the costs of implementing and operating technology to reduce the risks of contamination. Stakeholders, such as industry, government, community groups and members, developers and banks, should be addressed in the plan. After implementing a plan, development can occur. Sometimes periodic monitoring may need to be conducted to ensure that technologies do not fail. As the costs of monitoring may be excessive, these should be addressed in cleanup budgets. ________________________________________________________________ http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/local/bal-te.md.arsenic21apr21,0,2861870.story?track=rss |
